Over the last hundred years, music has played a pivotal role in inspiring and motivating social change. From labor movements to civil rights, anti-war protests to environmental activism, songs have served as powerful tools for communication, mobilization, and solidarity. Let’s explore some of the most influential songs and artists that have shaped social movements across different eras.
1920s-1950s: Labor Movements and Early Civil Rights
During this period, protest music primarily focused on labor rights and the emerging civil rights movement.
“Which Side Are You On” by Florence Reece (1931) This song emerged during the Harlan County War, a series of coal miner strikes in Kentucky. Written by Florence Reece, the wife of a union organizer, it became an anthem for the labor movement and was widely covered by artists like Pete Seeger [1].
“Strange Fruit” by Billie Holiday (1939) Originally a poem by Abel Meeropol, this haunting song protested the lynching of African Americans and became a powerful anthem for the civil rights movement. Its impact was significant in raising awareness about racial violence and injustice in America [2]. Billie Holiday’s emotional delivery made it one of the most significant protest songs of the era [3].
“Ol’ Man River” by Paul Robeson (1927) Originally written for the Broadway musical “Show Boat,” this song was transformed by Paul Robeson into a powerful statement on racial injustice. Robeson altered the lyrics to reflect the struggles of black Americans, making it a civil rights anthem [4].
1960s-1970s: Counterculture and Civil Rights Movements
The 1960s and 1970s saw an explosion of protest music, addressing issues from civil rights to the Vietnam War.
“Blowin’ in the Wind” by Bob Dylan (1962) This song became synonymous with the civil rights movement, asking poignant questions about peace and freedom. It was adopted by various social movements, highlighting its versatility and enduring appeal [5].
“We Shall Overcome” This song became the unofficial anthem of the civil rights movement. It was sung at protests and rallies, providing hope and unity among activists. Martin Luther King Jr. noted its power in inspiring courage and a sense of community [6].
“What’s Going On” by Marvin Gaye (1971) This song addressed issues of war, poverty, and racial injustice, becoming a timeless call for social change and reflection [7].
“Respect” by Aretha Franklin (1967) Originally written by Otis Redding, Franklin’s version became a powerful anthem for both the feminist and civil rights movements, demanding respect and equality.
“Fortunate Son” by Creedence Clearwater Revival (1969) This song became an anthem of the anti-Vietnam War movement, critiquing the disparity between those who were drafted and those who were not.
The 1960s was a fertile era for the genre, especially with the rise of the Civil Rights Movement, the ascendency of counterculture groups such as “hippies” and the New Left, and the escalation of the …
1980s-2000s: Anti-Apartheid and Social Justice Movements
This era saw a focus on global issues, particularly the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa.
“Free Nelson Mandela” by The Special A.K.A. (1984) This song became an anthem for the anti-apartheid movement, calling for the release of Nelson Mandela and drawing global attention to the injustices of apartheid in South Africa [8].
“Biko” by Peter Gabriel (1980) This song is a tribute to Steve Biko, an anti-apartheid activist who died in police custody. Gabriel’s song brought international attention to the apartheid regime’s brutality and became a rallying cry for the movement.
“Sun City” by Artists United Against Apartheid (1985) This collaborative protest song, featuring artists like Bruce Springsteen and Bono, was part of a campaign against apartheid in South Africa. It raised awareness and funds, contributing to the global anti-apartheid movement.
“Beds Are Burning” by Midnight Oil (1987) This song by the Australian band Midnight Oil highlighted the need for land rights and justice for Indigenous Australians. It became a powerful anthem for environmental and social justice, calling for action to return land to its rightful owners [9].
2000s-2020s: Contemporary Social Activism
In recent years, protest music has addressed issues such as racial justice, climate change, and other social movements.
“Alright” by Kendrick Lamar (2015) Adopted by the Black Lives Matter movement, this song became an anthem of hope and resilience in the face of racial injustice. Its impact is seen in its widespread use during protests and demonstrations.
“This Is America” by Childish Gambino (2018) The song and its accompanying video critique gun violence and racism in America. It became a cultural phenomenon, sparking discussions about the contradictions of Black life in the U.S. [10].
“The Bigger Picture” by Lil Baby (2020) Released shortly after the killing of George Floyd, this song became an anthem for the Black Lives Matter movement. Lil Baby’s lyrics address systemic racism and police brutality, resonating with the widespread protests that followed Floyd’s death [11].
“The 1975” by The 1975 featuring Greta Thunberg (2020) This track features a spoken word piece by climate activist Greta Thunberg, calling for immediate action against climate change and critiquing the status quo [12].
Throughout the last hundred years, these songs and artists have not only reflected the social and political climate of their times but have also inspired and motivated change. They have provided a voice for the marginalized, united diverse groups under common causes, and continue to resonate with new generations, demonstrating the enduring power of music as a tool for social change.
What is ___________________________________________________ ?
2. Comprehension Retell in your own words ____________________________________? What is the main idea of ____________________________________? What differences exist between ______________________________? Can you write a brief outline _________________________________?
3. Application How is_______________________ an example of____________________________? How is __________ related to ____________________? Why is __________________________________________ significant? Do you know another instance where _________________________? Could this have happened in_____________________________________________?
4. Analysis What are the parts or features of _____________________________? Classify ________________ according to ___________? Outline/diagram/web map ____________________________________ How does ______ Compare/contrast with _________? What evidence can you present for ___________________________?
5. Synthesis What would you predict/infer from ___________________________? What ideas could you add to ________________________________? How would you create/design a new _________________________? What solutions would you suggest for ________________________? What might happen if you combined ___ with _____?
6. Evaluation Do you agree that ________________? Explain ______ What do you think about ____________________________________? What is most important? Prioritize _________ according to _________________? How would you decide about____________________________________________? What criteria would you use to assess ________________________?
In times like these, when government may not be supportive of us, it is important that we use every communication vehicle available. Many of us are wondering, what is it that we can do to protect our families and community when our government does not care.
When democracy is being stolen by the elected president and a billionaire that bought him the election what are the tools of resistance that are nonviolent?
Things You Can and Need To Do
Nonviolent Tools of Resistance Against Democratic Erosion
When democracy is undermined by an elected leader and powerful financial backers, nonviolent resistance becomes a critical tool for citizens to reclaim their rights and protect democratic institutions. Research and historical evidence show that nonviolent methods are often more effective than violent ones in achieving lasting political and social change. Below are some key tools and strategies for nonviolent resistance:
1. Mass Mobilization and Protests
Organizing peaceful protests and demonstrations is one of the most visible and impactful ways to resist authoritarianism. Large-scale, sustained protests can draw attention to the erosion of democracy and pressure those in power to change course. For example, movements like the Civil Rights Movement in the U.S. and the People Power Revolution in the Philippines successfully used mass mobilization to achieve democratic reforms.
2. Civil Disobedience
Civil disobedience involves deliberately breaking unjust laws or refusing to comply with government policies that undermine democracy. This can include actions like boycotting government programs, refusing to pay fines, or staging sit-ins. Such acts disrupt the normal functioning of an illegitimate regime and highlight its lack of moral authority.
3. Building Broad Coalitions
Uniting diverse groups—across political, social, and economic lines—creates a stronger resistance movement. Broad coalitions can amplify the voices of marginalized communities and demonstrate widespread opposition to anti-democratic actions. This approach is emphasized in the “Democracy Playbook,” which outlines strategies for strengthening democratic institutions and resisting illiberal forces [1].
4. Protecting Voting Rights
Efforts to protect and expand voting access are crucial in resisting democratic backsliding. This includes fighting voter suppression, ensuring fair elections, and educating citizens about their voting rights. Organizations like the ACLU have highlighted the importance of combating disenfranchisement and ensuring that elections remain free and fair.
5. Strategic Use of Media and Technology
Using social media, independent journalism, and other communication tools can help spread awareness, counter disinformation, and mobilize support. Activists can use these platforms to expose corruption, document abuses, and share stories of resistance. However, it is essential to verify information and avoid spreading misinformation, which can undermine the movement’s credibility.
6. Non-Cooperation with Illegitimate Authorities
Refusing to cooperate with leaders or institutions that undermine democracy can weaken their power. This can include strikes, boycotts, or resignations from government positions. Non-cooperation disrupts the functioning of an authoritarian regime and demonstrates widespread dissent.
7. Training and Preparation
Participating in nonviolent resistance training can equip activists with the skills and strategies needed to resist effectively. Democracy training programs prepare individuals to respond to undemocratic power grabs and organize collective action.
8. Supporting Independent Institutions
Strengthening and supporting independent institutions, such as the judiciary, media, and civil society organizations, is vital for resisting authoritarianism. These institutions act as checks on power and provide avenues for accountability [1].
9. Funding and Supporting Opposition Movements
Opposition movements often lack the resources to effectively challenge entrenched power. Providing financial and logistical support to these groups can help level the playing field and ensure they are prepared to advocate for democratic governance.
10. International Solidarity
Building alliances with international organizations, governments, and activists can bring global attention to the erosion of democracy and apply external pressure on authoritarian leaders. This can include sanctions, diplomatic efforts, or public campaigns to hold leaders accountable.
Why Nonviolence Works
Research by Harvard Professor Erica Chenoweth shows that nonviolent resistance is more likely to succeed than violent campaigns. Nonviolent movements are more inclusive, attract broader participation, and are less likely to provoke violent crackdowns that alienate the public.
By employing these tools, citizens can resist the erosion of democracy and work toward restoring a government that reflects the will of the people.
This African diaspora work is inspired by history.
I was born in Hong Kong in 1950. When I was in secondary school, newspapers reported that the black district of Watts in Los Angeles was burned into ruins in 1965, and that black leader Martin Luther King Jr. was killed in 1968. That’s when I learned the word ‘Racial Discrimination’. At that time I had no means to understand the violence and injustice towards black people in the United States. Later, I discovered in books some horrific pictures of black people being lynched and hanged. The words, Racial Discrimination, hung in my mind as I prepared to come to America.
In 1971, I went to the United States to study industrial and commercial photography. I borrowed books from the library, looking at photographs instead of texts. Then I came across a book called, Chinese in America, that described all kinds of bullying, community burning, and extermination of Chinese railroad and mine workers from 1840-1890 by their white counterparts. Later, I came across works about slaves in the book “Nothing Personal” by the American photographer Richard Avedon*, and read carefully the text written by James Baldwin, who wrote the preface of the book. As a result, I began to have varying degrees of understanding of American society. I understood that in 1863, President Lincoln announced the dissolution of slavery in the third year of the Civil War. That was in name only, as smart white people would always be successful in making white people superior, no matter poor or rich.
*In 1972, I thought Richard Avedon was an outstanding fashion-product photographer at first, but later I saw him differently. His diverse and passionate photography throughout his life had a great impact on the world.
We need to consciously deal with the ugly side of human nature: greed, ignorance and pervasive power dominance.
As a Chinese American, I often think of our ancestors as the foundation of our existence and identity. Even though the ugly side of human nature also exists in history, the genealogy of Chinese surnames can be traced back a thousand years, and we can still confirm this bloodline from the handed down texts and portraits. But can the descendants of African slaves do this? Can Africans find traces of their lost ancestry elsewhere in the world? During the time of slavery, Africans lost everything under captivity and tyranny: religion, family, language and food culture; their whole identity ruined. Lifelong and descendant slavery rendered them illiterate, ignorant and being forced to reproduce for generations-for the benefit of their owners. And now, regardless of their nationality, they have evolved into international slaves of capitalists and industrialists alike.
Black images have been stigmatized for centuries, and the stigma has fueled the world’s imagination. Persistent negative stereotypes reinforce fear and underlying hatred. However, our ignorance exacerbates this situation because we fail to learn, and embrace the changes that must start deep within. As Muhammad Ali, our acknowledged great world champion, said, “Hating people because of their color is wrong. And it doesn’t matter which color does the hating. It’s just plain wrong.”
In my life, I have witnessed Chinese-Americans dislike African-Americans because of theft and robbery, and the negative portrayals of African Americans in the media. But, to be fair, since the early 1900s, the continuous shooting in Chinatown, gangsters, turf wars, dirty places and illegal problems have resulted in the negative image of Chinatown. The old community is dilapidated, and most people have to rush home after six in the afternoon. One can’t blame this on the outsiders.
In recent years, there have been incidents of hatred and beatings of Asians in major cities in the United States, and Asians blindly blame African Americans. In my own circle of Chinese friends, especially immigrant friends, some have expressed their disdain to understand the historical background of black slavery in the United States; let alone the painful and deep consequences of being enslaved for 400 years across continents. Those with financial ability will not buy property and do business in black communities. Many have expressed their fear towards black people, even if they don’t even know a single black person, and they don’t want to know them. Ignorance, fear and discrimination spread out like an epidemic in Chinese society.
This kind of blind discrimination against black people is not lacking in China. This issue is so complex that it takes individual and community efforts to find ways to explain and accept our differences to understand each other. Healing needs to begin.
The Purpose of work is to understand this deep entanglement from the root.
Information from Wikipedia: Current estimates are that about 12 million to 12.8 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic over a span of 400 years. The number purchased by the traders was considerably higher, as the passage had a high death rate with approximately 1.2–2.4 million dying during the voyage and millions more in seasoning camps in the Caribbean after arrival in the New World. Millions of people also died as a result of slave raids, wars, and during transport to the coast for sale to European slave traders.
The nature of the photographic work:
I have been photographing in depth the Chinese diaspora for over fifty years, covering S.E. Asia, North and Central America. This preliminary depiction of African slave diaspora work is based on Africans and their descendants’ desires to find their roots and souls. This has often resulted in a perpetual sense of confusion and loss. Indeed, in different ancient civilizations in the world, there are similar cultures. I think this is a response to the course in one’s life as we age.
My journey primarily searches the remote area in northern Togo, West Africa, where I photographed the Batamariba tribe. I believe that this tribe has not been seriously affected by Catholicism and Islam. There is no water, electricity, shops, schools and basic medical care. Being subsistence farmers, it is not heavily infected by the civilized world, and their traditions are almost intact.
I titled this series of diptych work – “Imagining Ancestors”
The components of the diptychs and icons:
1. The subject usually holds a prefabricated composite photo of a deceased slave (photographed by an anonymous person around 1932-1935) and a flag. These are portraits of deceased African American slaves, obtained from the Library of Congress, free for use without any restrictions. The other half is a flag which represents 1 of the 32 former European colonial countries in the Americas, where Africans were sold and enslaved. All the wealth they created went to the United States and European countries. Although these colonies have by now achieved independence, most remain fairly poor and unstable.
2. Portraits of Africans and their descendants are made in their ancestral lands and in other countries. Some showcase their occupations and others are made in their tribal home setting. All subjects consented to be photographed.
3. All slaves transported in the Atlantic Slave Trade were done by ship. So oceans and rivers are important icons in this series. These sea/river photographs are near slave embarkation points, called ‘factories’, e.g. Aneho in Togo, Senegal Goree Island and Pointe des Almadies; and rocky coast of Casablanca in Morocco.
4. Slaves were forced to toil in construction, mining, land clearance and plantation work: sugar cane, cotton, tobacco, cocoa, rice, coffee, corn, indigo dyes, rubber and timber. These were products of the colonial period. And cassava, yam and sweet potato, called Été in Africa, are the basic foods in Africa. These are icons. Regrettably, the diaspora situation is still going on now. Africans enter Europe, America and Hong Kong through various channels, legal or otherwise.
5. During the two months I was in Africa, due to poor public security in many West African countries, the area I could visit was not large. Forests had been cut down, and some crops had not matured or had already been harvested. Therefore some forest and crop totems were filmed in Thailand and Malaysia.
Method: Before setting off, I prepared a simple statement of intent in French and asked for the blessing of my subjects before making their portraits.
Bonjour,
Comment ça va?
Je m’appelle Pok Chi Lau. Je viens de Hong Kong. Je parle chinois et anglais. Je suis photographe.
J’ai photographié des personnes d’ascendance africaine nées à Cuba, à Hong Kong, en Jamaïque, en Haïti et aux États-Unis. Beaucoup d’entre eux pensent à leurs ancêtres en Afrique, bien qu’ils ne sachent pas d ‘où ils viennent. Maintenant que je suis en Afrique de l’Ouest, je veux photographier des Africains imaginant leurs ancêtres qui ont été enlevés de force de leur terre natale, traités horriblement et force.
Je voudrais prendre un portrait de vous tenant une photo d’un ancien esclave africain avec un drapeau du pays où ils ont été envoyés. Vous aurez les yeux fermés comme si vous pensiez à des parents dans un pays étranger.
Voici quelques exemples de ce que j’ai fait jusqu’à présent. Votre photo sera placée à côté du coton, de la canne à sucre, du maïs, du tabac, des cacahuètes et des minéraux, etc., pour lesquels les Africains de souche ont été asservis au travail.
Je montrerai ces photos dans des expositions de musées si l’occasion se présente. Pourriez-vous, s’il vous plaît, me permettre de faire un portrait de vous ?
Puis-je avoir votre bénédiction? Je vous remercie d’avance.
Photography process:
I usually ask my subjects to choose a composite image of a former slave with a flag, and then ask them to look at the slave in the photo. This induces a burst of imagination in their minds. Then I ask them to close their eyes to imagine their own ancestors who were forcefully removed from their homes forever.
The first photo is made at the home of Fola Lawson in Lomé, Togo, whose second house is under construction. I photograph their families and construction workers. Fola has a 68-year-old mother, wife, three daughters, a widowed sister with a 12-year-old daughter and a 10-year-old son. They are all from towns about 20 to 100 kilometers away from Lome. And it is through my friend, Tevi Lawson, a legal laborer in Hong Kong that I get to know his elder brother Fola Lawson in his hometown. The gravel pile is for building another 2-storey living structure.
The first trip out of the city was Aneho by the coast in the southeast, where Fola Lawson’s roots came from. This was a good start, as the village had a historic slave house, Agbodrafo, where captive slaves were once stored underground, and traffickers had to register and wait for formalities before slaves could be shipped out.
Kara is a large town in the north of Togo and is the only way to the Batamariba tribe
Some background in the Koutammakou
When logistics are finished, we begin our 10-hour drive journey to Koutammakou, our destination in the Kara region of northeast Togo. Information of the tribes:
-Village name: Bas Lissan
-Mud tower: Tamberma Fortress or Tata Somba
-Tribal name is Batamariba
-The people in the village are called Tamberma
-Language is Ditammari or Tammari
-Fakanfa (‘n’ not pronounced) is a mud-gravel structure built from the ground for ancestral memorials. They range from 1 to 6 feet tall in curve shape. Some are placed inside the bedroom, kitchen and hallway, and occupy the front of the Tara Somba. Some irresponsible western explorers give it the name of Liboloni and call them voodoos. The lack of resources and tribal warfare are the main causes of the diaspora from the Burkina Faso region to Fada Ngrouma in the 15-16th century. Tamberma are part of a larger Gur-language group in Congo, Nigeria, and sub-Saharan regions. Their language is Ditammari, also known as Tamari. Their population in Togo is about 43,000. We planned a 5-day journey.
Togo was colonized by Germany in the early 1800’s but the invasion of the Koutammakou area was unsuccessful, and the Tamberma resisted stubbornly. I guess the Germans had no intention of eradicating them. The Germans banned slave trade in Togo in the 1850s.
There is a Ditammari Bible (063P/BIBIRI-Kuyie Nnaanti Patiri) version made by Evangelical Christians from Baltimore, Maryland, and a missionary recording designed for oral cultures such as Tamberma, plus a program with audio recordings of the New Testament, trying to convert them. In three villages I visited, I only saw a 20-year-old mobile phone with no electricity to charge with, let alone signals. Therefore, the success rate of converting the natives to Christianity is only 2%.
The culture of Tamberma is oral and the tribal people are illiterate. However, there are rules in the national language alphabet of Benin that spell Ditammari into a written text. Alphabets without the letters Ŋ ŋ Ɖ ɖ are also used, notably by the Benin Bible Union. About 150,000 people speak the language.
The journey
The drive to Kara is uneventful. We pass small patches of banana, sugarcane and cassava fields as the landscape is not flat. There is no evidence of modern industrial farming. The landscape is quite arid without forests. The only fruit in abundance is mango. We find the Kara Hotel with air conditioning and clean sheets. We stay here for 4 nights and buy street food for lunch. Dinner is not much different. Tough going!
Tamberma Fortresses are protected by UNESCO. Upon entering the tribal region, we have to pay an entry fee and hire a local guide. The destination is 10 miles on a dirt road to the northeast. Our car stops 100 meters in front of the village as a Tamberma woman is smearing a thin layer of mud on the outer wall of a Tara Somba with her hands.
Strikingly, there is no single flat wall or angle in these Tara Somba structures, they are all curved. The features represent parts of the human body: the mouth, eyes and forehead are at the front, the lung cavities are the passages to the kitchen and second floor bedroom and storage; and the ears and eyes are seen through two small holes. Because it doesn’t rain often, there are small drainage holes near the roof. In front of the gate are several mud/gravel towers up to 5 feet in height, called Fafanka – ancestral memorials. These unique vernacular objects resemble Lignum phalluses in the Hindu culture.
Looking at the door from inside, there is no wardrobe, dining or living room. Tamberma folks live outside.
Looking at the inside from the main entrance, to the left is a work space, and forward is the kitchen.
The entrance faces a curved wall with animal skulls and plant seeds on it. The two rows of mud looking like pregnant women’s bellies with white feathers on the wall and the two mounds decorated in front are ancestral memorials called Fakanfa.
To the left of the curved wall is the kitchen with small Fakanfas on the ground, and to the right is the balcony on the first floor that can have a lookout.
A kitchen that doesn’t light a fire often, and I neglect to ask why? On the right are dried seed pods from the Nere trees used as fuel for cooking. The yellow seed in the Nere pod, after boiling, is food. The broth is used to mix with mud and animal dung to build the earthen tower.
The bellies of dried gourds are used as bowls and musical instruments.
Takounta Koutantia is a fisherman and hunter. I show him the picture of my giant rooster fish caught in Mexico on my mobile phone. He jumps up and down, grabs my arm and takes me as his best friend. He then points to the direction of the river and says excitedly that his father was a known crocodile hunter as villagers used to be bitten. He happily takes me to his house.
The entryway has no door allowing only one adult to pass through. (A wooden board or corrugated zinc plate is placed behind the wall as a door, without hinges). Crossing the first threshold, the floor space on both sides is used for drying plants and chicken coop. After passing the second threshold, 200 cm in front, one faces a 600 cm curve wall. There are five rather thick tree trunks in the passage in front of the wall as the structural 220 cm pillars of the entire mud tower. In front of it are several Fakanfas, ranging from 30-50cm, some of which are decorated with bird feathers. They’re built from the ground up like a fat missile head standing up. Other big mud bumps on the walls that look like pregnant women’s bellies are also Fakanfas. There are as many as 16 of them in 2 rows in another Tara Somba. Claire, the official local guide, whose real name is Sandamou Bahonma, puts it simply that these are Voodoo fetishes, when in fact, the correct name is Fakanfa. As a woman, she was not allowed to say that word (I later apologized to her for accusing her of not telling my friend Fola). They communicate in French and the Ewe dialect (one of over 40 Togolese dialects).
In the past, when Chinese quarreled, they often cursed their opponents’ eighteen generations of ancestors. In this regard, because there is no written language, African Ditammari have no match for this round.
The walls are gray. Essentials such as nets and cages are hung on ropes from the beams. Above are animals’ jaw bones, skulls, feathers, dried corn, okra and gourds. The structures of the construction are clear.
At the end of the curve are mud racks with more dried gourds for water storage. In the dark, there are plastic buckets of water on the floor, no candles, no oil lamps, which means no electricity or running water.
There are usually 4 holes in the curved wall, eyes and ears, to let light in and see outside from different directions. In the center is a tree trunk with a diameter of 20cm, which vertically supports the beams of the roof. At the end of the curved wall on the left, 2 steps of 50cm lead to the kitchen, where there are more small Fakankas. Three of them are used as stove supports for pots (out of all the Tata Somba kitchens I’ve been to, only two have used branches as shelves). The space in front of the steps on the left is for dry branches for cooking fire. The walls of the kitchen are blackened with no trace of dried meat, very few pots.
Through the 2.5-meter-long curved kitchen, there are two more 50-cm-high steps to the first part of the roof on the right, which is used for drainage and a rare bucket bath. Another 70-cm high step leads to another floor, and a 1-meter high wall surrounds the entire building, enabling the homeowner to shoot spears and arrows against enemies. On the left there is a small step leading to the bedroom. It is a strategic defensive design structure where families sleep with all their meager belongings. This specially designed bedroom of Tara Somba is the last line of defense if the enemy has taken so much of the domain downstairs.
It has a huge thatched roof covering 75-cm high walls and 75-cm sunken floor, the room is 150cm high. The grass eaves slope down to cover part of the bedroom opening which is 10cm from the roof’s floor. The bedroom entry hole is only 70-cm for 1 person to pass through. Anticipated enemies may come through the kitchen, the homeowner can discreetly shoot arrows directly from the bedroom at the invaders. Entering the hole in the bedroom is tricky to an outsider like myself. With my belly down, I put my first leg down first then the second. This design puts the enemy in the worst possible passive position, as he gets stabbed from all sides one way or the other. Also, if the table stone in the middle of the roof terrace (like the 50cm small dining table) is removed, a hole will appear allowing defenders to shoot arrows at passing enemies from the top floor.
Left: On the middle right are Fakankas of different sizes and women’s clothes. Middle: The tallest structure is the granary. Right: Outside the kitchen, the shells of the Nere tree are dried for fuel.
There is also a much smaller children’s bedroom on the rooftop that doubles as storage space. My buddy, Takounta Koutantia, slides down feet first into a sleeping fetus position. I can’t see anything important there, at least to my eyes, no cupboards or shelves, just a thin layer of hay as a mattress and little Fakanfas. The Tamberma folks are intimate with their ancestors.
I have gone inside another Tata Somba bedroom before this and have observed a pillow, women’s clothes and a bra. I think this China-made European and American undergarment has finally come to remote tribes, although there is no rack for clothes yet.
The highest part of Tata Samba is a grain storage tower built with mud walls and thatched roofs which can only be accessed with a narrow tree trunk ladder 20 cm wide. The ladder reaches the top with steps, which is more than 8 meters to the ground outside. I can’t climb this narrow ladder because it takes two hours to get to the hospital, if I fall. There are several Fakanfas in the bedroom. I think it is to meet their ancestors in dreams. (The Chinese have no match for this although dreaming about ancestors often appears in poems and fortune telling.)
As I look through the entire interior of Tamberma fortress, fresh fruits and vegetables are absent. Their diet consists of corn, cassava, yam, the seeds of the Nere tree and occasional domesticated animals.
The natives often stand under the versatile Nere tree and scan the horizon.
On the outdoor Fakanfa, these are ornaments made of large gourds to ward off evil spirits.
According to the 1976 American film Roots’ research, it is the cooperation between African Islam, tribal chieftains and Europeans who kidnapped Africans as slaves.
My Curiosity: Who Are Batamariba’s Enemies?
Two main categories of enemies have been identified on the Internet: Tribal chieftains and Muslims throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Other enemies came from other tribes, like the fierce Dahomey warriors of what is now the eastern region of Benin. Surprisingly, some of these warriors, known as Amazons, were women.
The guide, Sandamou Bahonma, said that the enemy was the Muslims who invaded the Batamariba tribe and took them as slaves, because they believed in animism and refused Islam. Because this tribe has no written text, its history is passed down orally; and is consistent with the research by Western scholars.
Sadly, Islamic militants in Africa continue to carry out raids in many parts of Africa. As economies collapse and climate change catastrophes expand, the African family degradation causing the diaspora remains unresolved.
Religious wars provide an excuse for Muslim invaders to capture non-Muslims and sell them to the Arabs, before Europeans came. Male slaves did labor work, including the pyramids in Egypt, some were turned into eunuchs to serve in harems, while female slaves became concubines or sex workers and servants. Murals and sculptures of Egyptian tombs depicted this history. In 1976 a very influential American film, Roots, came out. Backed by in-depth historical investigations, Muslim slave raiders were filmed, and they had no mercy for other vulnerable Muslim tribes in Sub-Saharan Africa. The protagonist of this movie, Kunta Kinte and his tribe members who eventually were sold in America were also Muslims. The business of Muslim slave trade continued to expand, and slaves were sold to Europe and American buyers.
Other observations
The Batamariba have no electricity, the wells are 200 to 400 meters away and they are subsistence farmers. Women carry buckets on their heads. Some young men find work in the township as there are 2 motorcycles. There are no schools, no clinics, no cement, only dirt paths, no modern life. I don’t see mirrors, toilets, pencils, paper, books or writing anywhere. I don’t see any soft-drink cans, no plastic packaging, just one plastic bag hanging on a wire. The only ‘modern’ houses are the occasional A-frame corrugated tin roofs covering plain mud huts with 90 degree turns. I am guessing probably because there are no more enemies in this area, and no need to build Tara Somba. Sparse rainfall causes natural grass to be short and scarce. Folks often live and sleep outside. Children appear to be healthy wearing some form of worn/torn clothing and sandals, and most walk barefoot. Many younger women wear bras. Corrugated tin and ready made clothes need cash to buy. I suspect that they do not rely on cash crops to raise cash, such as mango and cassava. The soil is poor, water sources are scarce.
From the top of a Tara Somba, new mud houses with A-shaped tin roofs emerge. 2 traditional grain storages remain.
The Tara Somba villages I have seen are all built on the hills for defense purposes based on their ancestral decision. From the roof, they can see enemies from a distance, and burial grounds are much further up in the hills unreachable by car as they want to keep it private.
At the cassava and mango stalls on both sides of the Kara Highway, Muslim ladies in gold and silver peddle.
Their fields are a bit far and only accessible by dirt paths. I don’t see any fruit trees around the villages. But 20 kilometers away in Kara and its outskirts, roadside markets sell local mangoes, bananas, cheese and cassava. However, if the Tambermas have opted for growing fruit as a cash crop, their lifestyle would be a bit closer to modernity. They have little experience of eating fruits and vegetables, let alone having the means to grow them and the tenacity to bargain. They are animists, not agriculturists. With the money I pay to photograph in the villages, they share the sum among all households. (So did the fishermen in Fadiouth, Senegal.) Moreover, most of the sellers in strategic locations are powerful Muslim women, and will not tolerate outsiders to elbow themselves in.
Cheese and yogurt on the roadside.
Cassava and Yam can grow in relatively poor soil. They provide day-long sustenance for laborers and are the most important food for Africans.
Baobab trees, a pod and seeds.
As an icon in Africa, every village in the region has at least one mature Baobab tree, the white seeds of a pod have medicinal value, like the magical Nere tree that is everywhere. Folks gather here to chitchat, hold important tribal meetings and welcome visitors. That’s where I see modern clothing. Older people tend to wear traditional clothing. A few women wear antelope horn hats, and young men wear fur hats. On both sides of the road out of the village, men in blue appeared twice herding cattle. The shepherds have a way of communicating with the cattle, and the herds protect the shepherds, driving me out of the bush twice.
The Tamberma are said to believe they are the caretakers of the land, not the owners. The true owners are the gods of the subterranean land, the sun, moon, and stars. They are animists. Having your ancestors by your bedside provides comfort. They embrace the teachings and blessings of their ancestors. In my sixty years of traveling, I have never seen people of any other culture so attached to their ancestors than the Tamberma folks.
Like the ancient Chinese tradition, ancestor worship is a celebration performed by certain people in African tribes, involving percussion, chorus and rhythmic dancing. Although Tamberma have no written language to speak of, the names and deeds of their ancestors are remembered by later generations. The songs and dances they create help carry such memories. European and American countries have bought slaves for more than 400 years. During this period, tribal peoples were broken up and scattered all over the New World, and they had rebuilt their homes. How many generations of ancestors can they remember?
In Gur’s language context, these specific people are called Edenou, and the spiritual prayer is called Apo Ede. Whenever the days of worshiping the ancestors are approaching, the ex-tribesmen who have gone away will try to go home to participate. Returnees bring their own food and drinks. During the ceremony, a gourd ladle filled with water is given to the returnees to drink as a sign of peace. Afterwards, these returnees explain what they are asking for from their ancestors, what difficulties they need to solve, and then promise to behave appropriately in the future in order to get the advice. Edenou, the ancestor advocate, identifies promises and grants what’s been asked. This is not a religious ceremony or Voodoo witchcraft, which is often misunderstood by outsiders.
Anéjo, Fola Lawson’s birthplace, hosts this event every year, but the Lawson brothers have chosen to break away from the tradition. There must be a reason for this as all three daughters have Christian names. Sadly, with the onslaught of modernization and urbanization, the spread of powerful organized religions, natural disasters, and global population displacement, ancestor worship is rapidly disappearing, as the same in developed countries, including China.
Other Journeys:
I arrived in Dakar, Senegal, on May 13th. I requested the driver to take me to a traditional fabric market. Literally thousands of fabulous African designs dazzled me, and the prices weren’t cheap. The hustle and bustle and noise prevented me from concentrating on a closer look. Later, I went to a small shop measuring 2.5×3 meters, and the stock was much less than its neighbors’. Since the store was small, I had to look up near the ceiling, and a piece of red and yellow cloth caught my eye. I pointed in that direction. The slim-body clerk didn’t use a ladder, and took the fabric down like a monkey. It was a bit dirty and probably not attractive to the average female clientele. I spread the piece out a square meter, big blood-red palms with 12 black dots and fingers on both sides of the edges jumped at my eyeballs. Seeing this jaw-dropping design, I didn’t bother to bargain or ask about its dimensions; just paid and left. I knew this design must have a story, but I forgot to ask its ins and outs.
Goree Island, Senegal
A few days later, an American friend informed me that this piece of cloth was related to King Leopold II, the tyrant of Belgium in Europe. Deploying 19,000 soldiers, he invaded the African Congo in 1876 and then owned it personally. In 1885, he established the Congo Free State when, in fact, caused great atrocity and drastically reduced the native human and elephant populations because of the ivory trade. At that time, the European competition for colonies in Africa was coming to an end. Meanwhile, industrial technology in Europe and the United States was greatly developed. Bicycles and cars completely changed the way of life of human beings, resulting in a great need for rubber to make tires. Later, other European colonizers followed this example and latex became the world’s new commodity. Leopold II then established the International African Federation, which was a scientific, humanitarian and charitable association in name, but in contrast, he and his partners enslaved natives to set up rubber plantations and extract latex in large quantities. If the harvested weight did not meet the quota, one finger or foot would be cut off first, and gradually the palm. If this slave had a family, theirs would be cut off on behalf of the working father. In 40 years, the punishment of torture, disease and malnutrition killed and destroyed tens of thousands families reducing the population, by estimation, from 20 to 10 million. As of December, 2022, the Netherlands apologized for their catastrophe from the 17th-19th centuries.
This bold and uncompromising design of this piece of fabric is unparalleled. I have used it in one of the diptych series, and cutting rubber is a totem for this series. This fabric will be used as an installation in future exhibitions.
2. In Senegal, I made 2 trips to the westernmost point of West Africa facing directly to the Americas, called Pointe des Almadies. It was part of the sea route to transport slaves from Goree Island.
Pointe des Almadies and Tamberma
Pointe des Almadies and Tamberma
3. Fadiouth, three hours southeast of Dakar, was a small transit port for slaves. I was able to photograph old fishermen and some female residents. There is a scenic cemetery near the mouth of the river. Here, as in the town’s inhabitants, Muslims, Catholics and animists coexist.
Fadiouth, Senegal
Fadiouth retired fishmen are well-dressed.
4. Senegal Goree Island – The Door of No Return,
A world-famous slave export island, marks the beginning of many Africans and their descendants in diaspora. Many descedants later come back to Africa to find their roots including President Obama and his wife, Michelle. Even though they know it can’t be done, they come to pay tribute to the tragic history of their ancestors. Once an African native passes through the Gate of No Return, his total belonging and identity will be forever lost.
The Goree Island Slave House showcases the use of iron shackles.
Goree Island, Senegal
Social unrests caused by political chaos and climate change are displacing Africans, supplying the world with endless cheap labor once they become refugees.
Rubber plantation and laborer
Another fingernail biting piece of history
Alligators are known to cannibalize people in swamps and rivers in Africa and the southern United States. The slaves escaped through waterways and took the chance of being bitten/eaten. In front of other slaves the masters would push the re-captured slaves into the alligator pool, using one to put fear into hundreds.
The portrait is of a lady from Haiti, who was born deformed and was not bitten by an alligator.
Beautiful last scene
There is a Tamberma woman walking around with a smile, bare-chested, curious as to what I am doing. I ask to photograph her in her home. Then I see the 12 cut lines on each side of her beautiful face, more than any natives I have come across on this journey. The practice of scaring a face to remember ancestors begins in childhood. What are the stories of their ancestors that are so precious that one is willing to live with these scars in one’s lifetime?
Wanting to know because of my ignorance, I go with the flow, I am beginning to see the light.
Pok Chi Lau
December 21, 2022
Origin: Mixed-raced Chinese and African in Cuba. Cuba banned the import of African slaves in 1860. From 1847-1874 private estate plantations, government construction, and mining companies hired 125,000 of indentured laborers from southern China. The Chinese soon intermarried with black female slaves and propagated. From 2009 to 2019, I made portraits of mixed-race descendants holding photographs of their Chinese ancestors. They still recognized their Chinese ancestors, but I didn’t ask them if they had the knowledge of their ancestors on the African side.
Cuban African-Chinese mixed-race portraits, including two people on the lower right participated in a small Cantonese opera troupe in
Friday June 19, 2020 at 12:15 at The Spokane Tribal Gathering Place (outside City Hall), SCAR and its partner organizations unveiled their full Platform for Change..
PLATFORM FOR CHANGE— RESPONDING TO THIS MOMENT
RELEASED: June 19, 2020
Spokane Community Against Racism (SCAR) and Asian Pacific Islander Coalition (APIC) – Spokane Chapter, Eastern Washington Progressives, Faith Leaders and Leaders of Conscience, FUSE Washington, Greater Spokane Progress, Hispanic Business/Professional Association, MAC Movement, Muslims for Community Action And Support, Peace and Justice Action League of Spokane (PJALS), Planned Parenthood Advocates of Greater Washington and North Idaho, Progressives of Spokane County, RAIZ of Planned Parenthood, Red Skirt Society, SHAWL Society, Smart Justice Spokane, Spectrum Center Spokane, Spokane Alliance, Spokane Ministers’ Fellowship, Tenants Union of Washington State, demand transformational change.
Spokane has a problem.
American policing tactics are rooted in white supremacy, fear, and violence. Spokane is not exempt from this, even though our mayor, police chief, county commissioners, and sheriff refuse to admit the true nature of the problem. In fact, Spokane has the 5th deadliest police force in the nation. We must end the cycle of fear and violence in our community and seize the opportunity during this tumultuous time to enact structural changes.
Death at the hands of police is not the only measure of racial violence. Here in Spokane, Black and Native Americans are disproportionately arrested, receive higher bail amounts, and are more likely to die in jail than whites. Our city and county officials know this. They have hired several consultants for millions of dollars to tell them so, yet they continue to ignore the good advice we all paid for.
We don’t trust them to understand, because they keep proving they are not listening.
At the invitation of the city and county, community members have spent thousands of hours sharing their testimony and lived experience in the name of community engagement. Yet elected officials have failed to honor this engagement by fulfilling their promises to decarcerate and advance racial equity.The residents of Spokane have fought officials numerous times to avoid building a new jail. Still—despite the wishes of the community—the County Commissioners and the Sheriff’s office continue to pursue a new, larger jail without first enacting the totality of humane, cost effective reforms which have been recommended to them over the past decade.
Sheriff Ozzie Knezovich continues to defend bringing the creator of “Killology,” a method of police training that teaches officers how to “…overcome the powerful reluctance to kill…” to train his deputies. He has doubled down on his support for killology training despite receiving thousands of petition signatures calling for the two-day seminar and workshop to be canceled. Spokane demands transformation. The unwillingness of the Mayor, Police Chief, County Commissioners, Sheriff, and other elected officials to heed expert advice and community lived experience, their stubborn insistence on expanding incarceration and entrenched racist systems, and their failure to listen to the community, convinces us that the elected leadership of Spokane does not grasp—or is not willing to meet—the needs of our community. We do not need more studies, consultants, conversations, forums, or media stunts. We are not interested in incremental change, but in drastic action.
To that end, we present the following Platform for Change. While we cannot hope to provide every comprehensive detail of necessary policy, we know the shape that change must take. This is the product of ongoing work within our community and around the country and is meant to serve as a mandate—it’s up to our leaders to help us all live up to its intent.
PLATFORM FOR CHANGE
DEFUND THE POLICE: INVEST IN COMMUNITY
SCAR rejects the idea that the only way to increase public safety is to increase policing. The power of state-sanctioned force and threat of lethal violence wielded by police is often inappropriate and inadequate to address the diversity of situations they are sent to resolve. Police are frequently tasked with handling homelessness, addiction, mental health, intimate partner violence, and other conditions in which they have no formal expertise; the result is often harm, injury, or even death for those whom the police are supposed to protect. The weight of these injuries and deaths falls most heavily upon people with medical or mental health conditions, people of color—particularly Black and indigenous people—and people with disabilities. This is not a problem that can be solved with more training. Expanding the power or authoritative scope of police in our communities will not make us safer.
Instead, SCAR embraces a holistic vision of public safety, one that accounts for the root causes of crime, and recognizes that shared prosperity and community care are at the heart of a safe and healthy society. When people’s basic needs are met, and experts are empowered to work within their expertise, communities are free to flourish. The City of Spokane and Spokane County will be safer when our leaders follow the advice of their expensive consultants, and the best practices indicated by decades of research in this and other cities. We demand investment in historically underserved communities to create a vibrant and healthy environment where all families can thrive:
Addiction and Mental Health Services
We demand public investment in culturally appropriate chemical addiction treatment and mental health services and diversion programs. These services should include crisis care, long-term in-patient, and out-patient care. Police are not mental health professionals and incarceration should not be a stopgap for healthcare or an underfunded social safety net.
We acknowledge and support the recently passed Public School Resolution Supporting the SPS Student Community Related to Racial Equity, and we believe this resolution represents a promising beginning to the work of racial equity and inclusion in Spokane Public Schools (SPS). In the interest of continuing this work, we demand an end to the contract between the Spokane Police Department and Spokane Public Schools.
SPS has the largest school policing budget in Washington State at $2.2 Million. That’s $2.2 Million spent to support the School-to-Prison Pipeline, a system which disproportionately funnels children of color from educational settings into the criminal justice system. Using police to address student behavior positions students as potential criminals who require management through the threat of legal and physical force, instead of recognizing them as children who are learning to manage conflict and their emotions.
We demand investment in school counselors, restorative conflict resolution practices, and activity programming which provides youth with constructive outlets and interpersonal learning environments. The ACLU of Washington has been at the forefront of this issue, listen to them.
CHANGE POLICE CULTURE
Public trust in the SPD is broken. It’s the 5th deadliest police force in the nation, and officers have been using the same knee-on-neck restraint that killed George Floyd until June 8th, 2020. We believe it is necessary to start fresh.
Disband the Police
Disband the police department, and hire a smaller group of officers to carry out narrowly defined, law-enforcement duties. In 2016, the Police Leadership Advisory Committee (PLAC) put together recommendations for the hiring of a new police chief. These recommendations, which could have helped revolutionize the culture of the SPD, were ignored. We believe these recommendations should be applied to all officers hired to work in the City of Spokane. PJALS has been deeply involved in this work, listen to them.
De-escalation Training for SPD and County Forces
While we do not believe the fundamental problems with American policing can be trained away, we support the will of Washington State Voters who voted decisively in favor of Initiative 940. Passed in 2018, Initiative 940 requires police receive training in de-escalation and mental health, and enforces the duty of all police officers to render first aid. It is our hope that with these tools police will be less likely to use lethal force, and that when they do, that force is less likely to result in death.
De-escalation and mental health training have the potential to not only act as positive tools in the current policing toolbelt, but to provide an additional standard to which police can be held accountable.
Demilitarize the Police
Our city is not a warzone, and weapons of war should not be used on our streets. This includes tear gas—a chemical weapon which is banned by the Geneva convention—and all repurposed military surplus equipment. Military uniforms, vehicles, and weaponry communicate to the residents of Spokane that the police view them as enemy combatants. Furthermore, militarized uniforms encourage a “warrior” mindset in police, which emphasizes readiness for violent conflict over the relationship-based work of building community trust. Spokane does not need street warriors, Spokane needs public servants we can trust; from their uniforms to their equipment, police should be equipped for the job that is needed.
POLICE OVERSIGHT
Independent Oversight with Investigative Power is a necessity at the Spokane Police Department and the Spokane County Sheriff’s Office.
No Contract without Office of Police Ombudsman Independence
We demand that the Office of Police Ombudsman (OPO) be empowered to conduct independent investigations and publish public closing reports. We demand that the OPO be free to conduct these independent investigations without fear of reprisal by the Police Guild.
A poison pill amendment to the Police Guild’s contract with the City of Spokane, which is still being negotiated, would allow the Police Guild to preemptively file a grievance against an Ombudsman candidate in an effort to prevent their appointment. It further empowers the Guild to attempt to have the Ombudsman or an OPO Commission Member removed for “exceeding their authority under the collective bargaining agreement.” Police cannot control the fate of the body that oversees them. We demand that the Spokane City Council reject any contract that fails to protect OPO independence.
NO CONTRACT without independent investigative power and public closing report. NO CONTRACT with police guild oversight of the OPO.
Mandatory body cameras for SPD and County Forces
Body cameras should be mandatory for every SPD officer and County deputy as a tool for reviewing police encounters with Spokane residents. Body cameras do not prevent violence, but they can be valuable for holding the police accountable. Turning off a body camera should come with an automatic charge of destroying evidence.
JUSTICE REFORMS
We urgently need to adopt effective, restorative policy solutions that are driven by the needs of those impacted by our justice system.
Jail Reforms
We demand divestment from the prison industrial complex: NO NEW JAIL; end policies that criminalize poverty, homelessness, and addiction; end cash bail; and end draconian drug charging decisions by the County Prosecutor’s office.
Instead, the city and county should invest in racial equity tools throughout our justice system; release criminal justice system demographic data; and adopt least-restrictive alternatives to jail with fully funded pretrial services. Smart Justice Spokane has been leading on these issues, and we demand our government listen to and collaborate with them.
Judicial Accountability
Impartial judges are the ideal, but we know that their decisions are vulnerable to the forces of systematic oppression and unconscious bias. For this reason we demand that the county, in cooperation with the courts, release sentencing data dis-aggregated by judge and defendant’s demographic information, including race and gender. With this data, voters—and the community groups who help keep them informed—will be empowered to identify racial sentencing disparities, and if necessary, right them at the ballot box.
Establish an Office of Civil Rights
The City of Spokane needs a fully funded and staffed Office of Civil Rights. This office would work within the City government to advance civil rights and end barriers to equity. It would regularly assess the city’s approach to racial equity, and provide education and training to government and local entities. The Office of Civil rights would receive civil rights complaints from the residents of Spokane, address hate crimes, and ensure that laws against illegal discrimination in employment, housing, public accommodations, and contracting within Spokane city limits are equitably enforced. The Office of Civil Rights Exploratory Committee and Greater Spokane Progress are already working on the structure of this office. Listen to and collaborate with them.
These are just some of the changes that Spokane needs. These demands are rooted in the data-backed reality, and the spiritual conviction, that a punitive approach to public safety has never, and will never, yield a free and equitable society.
Policing can no longer be the bandaid we affix to every social wound. Instead, we must build a Spokane where everyone is free to thrive. The time for incrementalism and half measures is past. This community demands transformation, and will continue to do so in statements, in public meetings, at the ballot box, and in the streets. It is up to our leadership to listen, and to do the jobs for which they were elected. The people are watching.
Chef Avont Grant from Spokane based No-Li Brewhouse has a passion for food and community. Despite the mandatory shut down of the restaurant, Chef Avont continues to cook good things up for the community including helping to raise over $17,000 for Big Table in support of Zome staffing – and using their kitchen in the mornings to make nutritious meals for Logan Elementary School. No-Li is also providing emergency meals to those unable to receive support from food banks, schools and other services during the COVID crisis. We asked Chef Grant to share with us one of his favorite comfort food recipes that we can all make at home when we are on lock down. Take a look at Chef Grant’s Meatloaf recipe here ! In between community building and creating dishes in the kitchen, Chef Grant was kind enough to share with us what’ he’s doing to stay sane while everything is – well – insane!
How do you stay positive and creative during this time? I cook, because it makes me happy, it takes my mind off the outside world…even if it’s just an hour or two! I like experimenting in the kitchen and coming up with concoctions. Since I was 9 years of age I would cook with whatever we had in our bare cupboards and refrigerator…a lot of the time it wasn’t much! But that was the thrill of it; making something out of nothing. Growing up poor on the south-side of Chicago was tough, so I spent most of my time in the kitchen. I guess you could say the kitchen is my happy place! How can people support local businesses and restaurants during this time? Set aside a couple of days a week to order take-out from local restaurants. Try to buy big portion type meals, especially if it’s a local Asian or Italian restaurant. Meals that consist of some type of noodle or pasta are the best because they can be divided up into two meals. These meals freeze well and are easily reheated on the stove top!
Duaa Williams organized this summit held at The Carl Maxey Center on September 28 2019 to bring the formerly incarcerated together with the communities they are still a part of. The goal is to bring “humanizing and fellowshiping” into the incarceration system, as NAACP President Kurtis Robinson said in an interview on KYRS radio:
